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A Brief History of China
The History of China encompasses the time period from the prehistory of mankind to the present day. Yellow River is said to be the cradle of Chinese civilization, although cultures originated at various regional centers along both the Yellow River and the Yangtze River valleys in the Neolithic era. The oldest historical sources make no mention of any dynasties or rulers before 2200 B.C. But Chinese mythology speaks about them. In due all respects for both - the history and the mythology - this brief history of China contains both: historical proven events, dynasties and rulers, as well as mythical ones. We don't want to fall in scientific disputes about this subject, we only want to present some information about one of the world's oldest civilizations, China. Archaeological and historical notes: * The archaeological site of Xihoudu in Shanxi Province is the earliest recorded use of fire by Homo erectus, which is dated 1.27 million years ago. The excavations at Yuanmou and later Lantian show early habitation. Perhaps the most famous specimen of Homo Erectus found in China is the so-called Peking Man discovered in 1923–27, which is dated 680.000-780.000 years ago * Evidence of creation and use of pottery found in Xianren Cave in Jiangxi province 20000 - 19000 B.C. * Analysis of Chinese rice residues show that rice had been domesticated ca. 7500 B.C. by the Pengtoushan culture * 6600 B.C. - Jiahu script, still under debate whether this can be considered as a form of writing * The Chinese settled in the Yangtze Valley ca. 6500 B.C. * Archaeological evidence on domestication of dogs and chickens for the first time by the Cishan culture ca. 6000 B.C. * The Chinese settled in the Yellow River Valley ca. 5000 B.C. * Archaeological evidence on domestication of oxen and sheep for the first time by the Baijia culture ca. 5000 B.C. * At Damaidi in Ningxia, 3172 cliff carvings dating to 6000 - 5000 B.C. have been discovered, "featuring 8453 individual characters such as the sun, moon, stars, gods and scenes of hunting or grazing." These pictographs are reputed to be similar to the earliest characters confirmed to be written Chinese * 4000 B.C. - Banpo script, scholars still debate if it is actual writing or not * 3630 B.C. - approximate date of the oldest discovered silk in China, found by archaeologists in what is now Henan province in what was the late Yangshao period * 3000 B.C. - during the Longshan Neolithic period, the buffaloes are domesticated for the first time in China and the plow may have been used * 2570 B.C. - approximate date for the silk and other items found at the Liangzhu culture site at Qianshanyang in Wuxing District, Zhejiang; silk items found there included a braided silk belt, silk threads, and woven silk * Neolithic period ca. 6000 - ca. 1750 B.C. (the group of sites and associated cultures of the north central plains in early Neolithic times are collectively known as Yangshao cultures) * Erlitou period ca. 1750 - ca. 1500 B.C. followed by Erligang and Anyang periods * the list of rulers of China includes rulers with various titles. From the Shang dynasty to the Qin dynasty, rulers usually held the title "King" (Chinese: 王 Wáng). With the separation of China into different Warring States, this title had become so common that the unifier of China, the first Qin Emperor Qin Shi Huang created a new title for himself, that of "Emperor" (皇帝 Huángdì). This title of Emperor of China continued to be used for the remainder of China's Imperial history, right down to the fall of the Qing dynasty in 1912. While many other monarchs existed in and around China throughout its history, this list covers only those with a quasi-legitimate claim to the majority of China or those who have traditionally been named in king-lists * The first generally accepted date in Chinese history is 841 B.C. All dates prior to this are the subject of often vigorous dispute. Records of the Grand Historian (Shiji - ca. 100 B.C.) provides the basic structure of the chronology of early Chinese history in use today. The book was compiled by Sima Qian (145 - 89 B.C.), the Grand Historian of the royal court of the Han Dynasty (206 B.C. - 220 A.D.); starting from the year 841 B.C. (first year of the reign of Gong He king from Western Zhou Dynasty 1046 - 771 B.C.), Sima Qian compiled an absolute chronological table that systematically chronicled the events. Before that year, Sima Qian admitted that he was unable to reconstruct the exact chronology because of the inadequacy of material and could provide, therefore, only a list of kings. * According to K.C. Chang, who has written extensively on ancient Chinese archaeology (Chang, 1986), China was very moist and much greener in prehistoric times. The evidence of animal remains, soil samples from archaeological sites and the imagery used on ancient ceramic vessels, suggest a more tropical, forested environment throughout China. Animals found in north-central China at this time would have included water buffalo, bamboo rat, elephants, tapirs, water deer–animals normally associated with a more southern climate. Some of the earliest domesticated animals appear to have been dogs, pigs and water buffalo. In the north, farmers raised millet crops, hemp and cabbage. Some of the earliest remains of farming are found at the sites of Peiligang and Cishan. In the south, rice was the main crop, with some of the first evidence showing up in the middle reaches of the Yangzi river. Along the east coast, there is evidence of bottle gourds, acorns and water chestnuts. Cord was made from a nettle plant known as ramie. * The name - China - is derived from the Persian word Chin (چین), which in turn derives from the Sanskrit word Cīna (चीन). It is first recorded in 1516 in the journal of the Portuguese explorer Duarte Barbosa. The journal was translated and published in England in 1555. The traditional theory, proposed in the 17th century by Martino Martini, is that Cīna is derived from "Qin" (秦), the westernmost of the Chinese kingdoms during 221 - 206 B.C. However, the word was used in early Hindu scripture, including the Mahābhārata (5th century B.C.) and the Laws of Manu (2nd century B.C.). But the Chinese themselves never used any such term. They originally called their country by one of three names: Tien-hia ("under the heavens"), Sz-hai ("within the four seas") or Zhong-guo ("middle country"). It is also quite in accord with Chinese custom to speak of the country after the dynastic name, as during the Han Dynasty (206 B.C. - 220 A.D.) the Chinese described themselves Han-tsz ("Sons of Han") and during the Tang period (618 - 907 A.D.) as Tang-jin ("Men of Tang"). The official name of the modern country is the People's Republic of China (Chinese: 中华人民共和国; pinyin: Zhōnghuá Rénmín Gònghéguó). Nowadays the common Chinese names for the country are Zhōngguó (Chinese: 中国), from zhōng ("central" or "middle") and guó ("state" or "nation") and Zhōnghuá (Chinese: 中华). 1 According to the Book of Rites (ca. 350 B.C.) and to the Records of the Grand Historian (ca. 100 B.C.), before 3000 B.C. reign Panku (Pangu), Nüwa (女媧), Youchao (有巢) and Suiren (燧人). Whereas Panku was the creator of the universe in Chinese mythology, Youchao taught people how to build houses and Suiren (Sui-jin) brought the fire, the creator of people was a goddess named Nüwa. Nüwa is briefly mentioned in several ancient Chinese texts and in addition, many images of Nüwa have been uncovered on ancient Chinese bronze sculptures and paintings. Like many of the early Chinese gods, Nüwa was half animal, half divine. Most often, Nüwa had the face and arms of a human but the body of a snake or dragon. She could change her shape at will. Modern Chinese books prefer to show her as a beautiful woman. The story of Panku introduces one of the most important concepts in Chinese thought: Yin and Yang. These opposing forces, which exist in everything found in nature, are not seen as evil and good, but as dark and light, female and male, earth and heaven. One cannot exist without the other. Authors Martin Palmer and Zhao Xiaomin of the International Consultancy on Religion, Education and Culture (ICOREC) explain: "Yin is female, moist, cold, the moon, the autumn and winter, the shadow and the waters. Yang is male, dry, hot, the sun, the spring and summer, the bright and the dry land. They struggle with each other for supremacy. From their struggle comes the dynamic which drives the whole of life. For they are found locked together in every being, every situation. As one seems to be gaining the ascendancy, the other arises for they each carry the seed of the other within them as the Yin-Yang symbol so clearly illustrates". According to Chinese mythology, after Panku follow three periods which may be described as follows : * The Reign of Heaven, during which the heavens were actually formed * The Reign of Earth, during which the earth received its shape * The Reign of Man, during which men and other terrestrial beings took their proper place in the universe. In the first of these periods twelve brothers reigned as the Tien Wang or Heaven Kings, each for a period of 18.000 years. In the second period reigned the eleven brothers, known as the Ti Wang or Earth Kings, who discovered the division of day and night and the division of the year into months of thirty days. In the third period reigned the nine Jin Wang or Man Kings, with faces of men and bodies of dragons or serpents. They divided the world into nine empires, one for each of the brothers. Early Chinese stories refer to a mythical time ruled by the Ten Legendary Kings. These rulers are half-human, half-animal. They have magical powers and introduce knowledge to humans such as writing, agriculture, hunting, fire and flood control. Although no archeological evidence exists to prove they really lived, these kings dominate early Chinese mythology. Later Chinese histories speak also of a number of legendary rulers. These rulers are treated like fact for most of Chinese history and are often depicted in works of art. After a period of creation and the formation of the various elements, three sovereigns and five emperors emerge. Shennong invented agriculture. Fu Xi (Fushi), the common ancestor, invented writing, hunting and fishing. Huang Di invented government and Daoist philosophy and his wife introduced silk spinning. These three cultural heroes are followed by the last of the model emperors or three sage kings - Yao, Shun and Yu. Yu is credited with controlling the floods and founding the Xia dynasty. In a symbolic gesture, Yu casts nine bronze vessels (ding), each representing one of the regions at that time, and these are passed to succeeding dynasties as a way of legitimizing the right to rule. Xia begins on a high moral note, but concludes with a decadent king, who falls to Tang, the founder of the Shang dynasty. 2 Also known as Da Yu (大禹), Yu the Great is the founder of the legendary Xia Dynasty (2205 - 1600 B.C.) Although there is disagreement as to whether the Xia Dynasty actually existed, there is some archaeological evidence pointing to its possible existence. Sima Qian, writing Records of the Grand Historian (ca. 100 B.C.), dated the founding of the Xia dynasty to around 2200 BC, but this date has not been corroborated. Most archaeologists now connect the Xia to excavations at Erlitou (ancient capital) in central Henan province, where a bronze smelter from around 2000 B.C. was unearthed. Early markings from this period found on pottery and shells are thought to be ancestral to modern Chinese characters. Niannian Fan, a river sciences researcher at Tsinghua University in Chengdu, China, said on 18 December 2014, at the 47th annual meeting of the American Geophysical Union in San Francisco, that new research suggests a major earthquake nearly 3000 years ago and it may be the culprit in the mysterious disappearance of one of China's ancient civilizations. The massive temblor may have caused catastrophic landslides, damming up the Sanxingdui culture's main water source and diverting it to a new location. 3 Dates for the Erlitou, Erligang and Anyang phases of ancient China are subject to debate. While some historians believe that Erlitou is the site of the ancient Xia dynasty, others consider it to be the early stages of the Shang dynasty. The period of time from the Xia period through the Zhou period is often referred to as the Bronze Age in China. During the reign of King Wu Ding (ca. 1200 B.C.) - oracle bone script, providing the first evidence for the Chinese calendar system. 4 King Wu Wang of Zhou Dynasty defeated King Dixin of Shang Dynasty during the Battle of Muye in 1046 B.C. Zhou Dynasty has follow periods: Western Zhou (1046 - 771 B.C.) and Eastern Zhou (770 - 256 B.C.) with Spring and Autumn period (770 - 476 B.C.) and Warring States period 475 - 221 B.C.). Western and Eastern Zhou Dynasties signify a change in the capital of that dynasty from west to east, from ancient Chang’an (Xi’an) to Luoyang (722 B.C.). During the Warring States period, power shifts to several competing states. Zhou continues to rule as a puppet state while others jostle for power. The uncertainty of the Eastern Zhou contributed to the development of the so-called "hundred schools" of philosophy, a creative flowering of genius that laid the foundations for all major schools of Chinese thought with the exception of Buddhism. At this time, philosophers began to travel around from court to court offering advice on everything from how to run the state, how to achieve victory in battle and how to achieve immortality. The most famous systems of thought to develop during this time were: * Confucianism - founded by Kong Fu Zi (ca. 551 - 479 B.C.), known in the west as Confucius. Confucius concerned himself with how society should be governed, what constitutes an ideal ruler and how people should behave by cultivating virtue. He stressed the importance of relationships, using the family as a model, where individuals obeyed their elders from one’s father and elder brothers up to the head of state. Rather than controlling people through harsh laws or coercion, Confucius stressed education as the vital tool in developing appropriate behavior that would result in an orderly, virtuous society. The Confucianism became the dominant state ideology, with some exceptions, for most of the later dynasties that ruled China up until the last century * Mohism - founded by Mo Zi (ca 470 - 391 B.C.), initially a follower of Confucius, Mo Zi rejected selective love based on the family, preaching universal or brotherly love, where everyone is treated equally with the same sense of obligation extended to the family. Similarly, rulers should treat enemies as if they were his own kin, and not wage war. Mohists emphasized engineering and other practical arts and deemphasized music and ritual * Legalism - it assumed that humans are basically greedy and selfish and therefore need to be ruled with a strong hand. The ruler’s job was to promote a set of harsh laws, to provide a system of rewards and punishments, so that everyone would work hard in the interests of the state and refrain from wasteful discourse. Legalism was adopted by the First Emperor (Qin dynasty) under the direction of the chief minister Shang Yang. Legalism was also promoted by Han Fei Zi, a member of the ruling family during the Han dynasty 5 During the Warring State’s Period, (475 - 221 B.C.), China was divided into a group of competing kingdoms. The dominant states were Han, Zhou, Wei, Chu, Yan, Qi and Qin. For over two hundred years, the boundaries and allegiances of the states shifted, but by 221 B.C. only one kingdom remained - the state of Qin. Its ruler, King Zheng, proclaimed himself as the First Emperor of Qin - Qin Shi Huang Di, uniting China for the first time. His title took the two ancient characters: huáng (皇, generally translated "Sovereign" or "August one", denoting demi-god status) and dì (帝, generally translated "Emperor") to form huángdì (皇帝, Emperoror), thus claiming legendary status for himself. After unifying the country, Qin Shi Huang Di standardized the currency, weights and measures, axle widths and reduced the written language to a single, approved script. He also consolidated several sections of the Great Wall in order to protect his empire on the northwestern frontier. The Emperor’s regime unified and standardized certain aspects of China, but his emphasis on strict laws and severe punishments also lead to the empire’s collapse. The Qin Emperor presided over the brutal silencing of political opposition, including the event known as the burning of books and burying of scholars. The real reason for the destruction of the Confucian books and for the persecution of the literati may never be known, as the accounts which have survived contradict one another. The Confucian Classics (with the single exception of the Yi-King) and all other literature (with the exception of works on agriculture, medicine and divination) were so thoroughly destroyed. It is said that Kung Fu, a descendant of Confucius in the ninth degree, was one who had preserved hidden in the walls of the ancestral house copies of the old books. One of Qin Shi Huang Di’s greatest projects was the construction of his personal mausoleum and the creation of a huge terracotta army, which would protect him in the afterlife. The tomb complex consisted of four pits (three of which are occupied by the terracotta army, while the fourth remained empty) and the Emperor’s tomb itself, which to this day remains unexcavated. The terracotta army is the largest ceramics project ever known. 6 One of the most famous dynasties: Western Han Dynasty (206 B.C - 9 A.D.), Xin Dynasty (Wang Mang Interregnum 9 - 23 A.D.), Eastern Han Dynasty (25 - 220 A.D.) During the Western Han Dynasty, major military campaigns are launched to weaken the nomadic Xiongnu Empire, limiting their influence north of the Great Wall. Along with the diplomatic efforts led by Zhang Qian, the sphere of influence of the Han Empire extends to the states in the Tarim Basin, opens up the Silk Road that connected China to the west, stimulating bilateral trade and cultural exchange. To the south, various small kingdoms far beyond the Yangtze River Valley are formally incorporated into the empire. The Eastern Han dynasty was one of the most prolific era of science and technology in ancient China, notably the historic invention of paper-making by Cai Lun and the numerous contributions by the polymath Zhang Heng. 7 The disunion period started with Three Kingdoms period (Wei, Shu and Wu 220 - 280), then Western Jin (265 - 316) and Eastern Jin (317 - 420), then Sixteen Kingdoms period (304 - 439) and then The Six Dynasties (420 - 581) also named South and North Dynasties, which were: Song, Qi, Liang, Chen, Wei and Zhou. The main dynasties of the Sixteen Kingdoms period: Han Zhao, Later Zhao, Cheng Han, Former Liang, Later Liang, Northern Liang, Western Liang, Southern Liang, Former Yan, Later Yan, Northern Yan, Southern Yan, Former Qin, Later Qin, Western Qin, Xia 8 The period of political disunity between the Tang and the Song Dynasties, known as the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period, lasted little more than half a century. During this brief era, when China was in all respects a multi-state system, five regimes rapidly succeeded one another in control of the old Imperial heartland in northern China. During this same time, sections of southern and western China were occupied by ten, more stable, regimes so the period is also referred to as the Ten Kingdoms. The Five Dynasties (907 - 960) were: Later Liang, Later Tang, Later Jin, Later Han and Later Zhou. The Ten Kingdoms (907 - 979) were: Wu, Wuyue, Min, Chu, Southern Han, Former Shu, Later Shu, Jingnan, Southern Tang, Northern Han 9 The Chinese Empire was divided between Mongols and Chinese. Major dynasties were: Northern Song Dynasty (北宋) (960 - 1127 A.D.), Southern Song Dynasty (南宋) (1127 - 1279), Liao Dynasty (遼) (907 - 1125), Western Liao (1125 - 1168), Western Xia (西夏) (1032 - 1227) and Jin (金) (1115 - 1234). The Liao Dynasty - officially the Great Liao(大遼), also known as the Khitan Empire - was an empire in East Asia that ruled over Mongolia and portions of the Russian Far East, northern Korea, and northern China between 907 and 1125. Taking its name from the Liao River in southern Manchuria, it was founded by the Khitan Great Khan Abaoji around the time of the collapse of the Chinese Tang dynasty. The Liao dynasty was destroyed by the Jurchen people of the Jin dynasty, in 1125, with the Jin capture of Liao emperor Tianzuo. However, remnants of its people, led by Yelu Dashi, established the Western Liao dynasty (1125 - 1168), also known as the Kara-Khitan Khanate, which ruled over parts of Central Asia before being conquered by the army of the Mongolian ruler Genghis Khan. The Mongol leader Genghis Khan (he ruled the Mongol Empire between 1206 - 1227) launched in 1210 a military campaign against the Jin Dynasty. In the terms of a treaty with Genghis Khan, the Jin Dynasty becomes a vassal state of the expanding Mongol Empire. When the Jin court moved their capital from Beijing to Kaifeng once more (1215), Genghis Khan saw this as open revolt and sacked the former capital Beijing, burning the city to the ground. Genghis Khan died during the siege of the final Western Xia stronghold in 1227. His successor, Ogdai Khan, resumed the war against Jin in the same year. Then followed a little respite only because the Mongols had turned against the West, then in 1234 the Mongols defeated the Jin Dynasty and the entire Chinese Empire (less Southern Song Dynasty) has fallen to the Mongols. 10 Depending on sources, the beginning of Yuan Dynasty is either 1206 (first year of the reign of Genghis Khan), either 1260 (first year of the reign of Kublai Khan - the grandson of Genghis Khan), either 1271 (the year since when Kublai Khan had assumed for himself the dynastic name of Yuan), either 1279 (the year of the defeating the last remnant of Southern Song Dynasty during the Battle of Yamen), either 1280 (the year since when Kublai Khan called himself Emperor). 11 Zhu Yuanzhang overthrows the Yuan Dynasty and founds the Ming Dynasty. He adopts the reign title of "Hongwu". 1381 - The Ming Dynasty annexes land from the Kingdom of Dali, in present-day Yunnan and Guizhou, spurring a Chinese migration of hundreds of thousands 1406 - Construction of the Forbidden City begins, as well as new Beijing city fortifications. After 13 years of a massive construction project for a new capital and Forbidden City, the Yongle Emperor declares Beijing the new capital, while Nanjing is demoted. 12 The Manchus were formerly known as Jurchen, residing in the northeastern part of the Ming territory outside the Great Wall. They emerged as the major threat to the late Ming dynasty after Nurhaci united all Jurchen tribes and established an independent state. Nurhaci founded the Jin (金) or Later Jin (後金) dynasty in 1616, but it was his son Hong Taiji who changed the name of the dynasty to Qing in 1636. Manchu conquest of China was between the years 1618 and 1683: * 1618 - 1619: Battle of Sarhu - the Manchus defeated the Ming * 1626: Battle of Ningyuan - the Ming defeated the Manchus * 1641 - 1642 Battle of Songjin - the Qing defeated the Ming * 1644: Battle of Beijing - rebel forces led by Li Zicheng occupied the capital Beijing and overthrew the Ming dynasty * 1644: Battle of Shanhai Pass - the Qing forces allied with former Ming general Wu Sangui and defeated Li Zicheng's forces 13 The beginning of the period of modern government: * historians agree that the fall of the Qing dynasty demarcated the modern era in Chinese history. Scholars, however, are studying the reasons for that fall in the previous 130 years. Keith Schoppa, the editor of The Columbia Guide to Modern Chinese History argues: "A date around 1780 as the beginning of modern China is thus closer to what we know today as historical reality" * frustrated by the Qing court's resistance to reform and by China's weakness, young officials, military officers and students began to advocate the overthrow of the Qing dynasty and the creation of a republic. They were inspired by the revolutionary ideas of Sun Yat-sen * the Qing dynasty was overthrown in 1911 (by a revolutionary military uprising, the Wuchang Uprising, began on 10 October 1911, in Wuhan.) and the last emperor, Pu-yi (Xundi - "The Abdicated Emperor" - is the posthumous name given by mainland China and Taiwan's history books to Pu-yi), abdicated officially on February 12, 1912 * Sun Yat-sen was declared President (the first president of the Republic of China), but Sun was forced to turn power over to Yuan Shi Kai, who commanded the New Army and was Prime Minister under the Qing government, as part of the agreement to let the last Qing monarch abdicate (a decision Sun would later regret). Yuan Shi Kai - president of the provisional government - was chosen president in 1913 * 1915 - constitutional monarchy proclaimed. Coronation of Yuan Shi Kai fixed for the coming February * Yuan Shi Kai attempted to establish himself as emperor in 1916, but his rule is universally accepted as inauthentic. After 83 days, the reign collapsed * 1916 - Yuan after usurpation surrenders civil authority to the Cabinet. Canton government formed. China with two presidents and two governments. Death of Yuan Shi Kai * 1917 - the boy-emperor reinstated. Reign of six days * 1918 - Hsu Shih Chang President, to serve until 1923, two Congresses at Canton and Peking * 1919 - two Northern Factions, Anfu and Chili * 1920 - the Anfu and Chili factions come to blows in the capital * 1921 - the Washington Conference reaffirms the Open-Door principle and abolishes American recognition of "special interests" in Asia * 1928 - all China theoretically united under the Nanking regime * 1949 - establishment of the People’s Republic of China (Mainland Area) and of the Republic of China (Taiwan, Penghu, Kinmen and Matsu) * Mao Zedong is the founder of the People’s Republic of China (1 October 1949) * 1970 - the launch of Long March rocket, first satellite launch * 1978 - Chinese economic reforms, followed in 1979 by the one-child policy * 1980 - the founding of Special Economic Zones, followed in 2013 by Shanghai Free Trade Zone * 1989 - Tiananmen Square protests, the declaration of Martial law on Lhasa, Tibet * 1997 - Hong Kong handover, becomes a Special Administrative Region Sources: * Gowen, Herbert. "An Outline History of China". Sherman, French & Co. Boston. 1913 * Macgovan, J. "Imperial History of China". Shanghai. 1906 * Rixiang Zhu, Zhisheng An, Richard Pott, Kenneth A. Hoffman. "Magneto-stratigraphic dating of early humans of in China". Earth Science Reviews 61, 2003 * Collier, Irene Dea. "Chinese Mythology". Enslow Publishers, 2001 * Werner, E. T. "Myths and Legends of China". Project Gutenberg. 2005 * Chang, Kwang-chih. "The Archaeology of Ancient China". Yale University Press. 1986 * Wilkinson, Endymion Porter. "Chinese history: a manual". Harvard University. Asia Center (for the Harvard-Yenching Institute). 2000 * Hogarth, Brian. "Ancient China: From the Neolithic Period to the Han Dynasty". Asian Art Museum, Education Department. 1999 * Boltz, William. "Language and Writing". 1999 * Loewe, Michael; Shaughnessy, Edward L. "The Cambridge History of Ancient China". Cambridge University Press * Eastman Lloyd. "The Nationalist Era in China 1927–1949". 2001 * Benjamin Vincent. "China". Haydn's Dictionary of Dates (25th ed.) London 1910 * Fairbank, John King. Goldman, Merle. "China. A New History". Harvard University. Cambridge, Massachusetts. London, England. 2006 __NOWYSIWYG__